Stage 2: Algor Mortis

The second stage of decomposition, Algor Mortis translates to “coldness” [algor] “of death” [mortis]. Algor Mortis, sometimes refered to as the “death chill”, is marked by a steady decline in body temperature and continues until the corpse reaches “ambient temperature”, or matches the temperature of its surroundings. Algor Mortis usually sets in one hour after death, but many factors have significant influence on this phase of decomposition. Determining the correct time of death by way of body temperature can be difficult due to stability/fluctuation of ambient temperature, the thermal conductivity of the surface the corpse is on and what is known as a “temperature plateau”, a highly variable period of time in which the body does not cool. The rate of cooling may be increased if the deceased is thin or malnourished or if the body is exposed to low temperatures and/or a windy environment. On the other hand, if the person was febrile (running a fever), under the influence, obese or left in a warm environment, the rate of cooling will decrease. Clothing can also play a major role in speeding up or slowing down Algor Mortis. The corpse will cool faster if large amounts of skin are exposed or when wearing wet clothing. Dry, layered, heavy clothing keeps the body warm for a longer period of time after death. Once the body begins true decomposition, the temperature will rise again, making Algor Mortis most helpful in determining time of death within the first 24 hours. Temperature readings can be obtained from the rectum of the deceased or by inserting a meat thermometer under the ribcage on the right side of the corpse and into the liver. Investigators use the Glaister Equation to estimate the time of death. While the temperature change can vary anywhere between a 1 degree Fahrenheit drop in temperature per hour to a 12 degree F drop per hour, the average is 1.5 degree F drop per hour, each hour following death. The Glaister Equation uses 98.4 degrees F (average body temperature) minus the rectal (or internal) temperature in degrees F, divided by 1.5 degrees F, to equate time of death. During this stage of decomposition, we also usually begin to see full corneal cloudiness in eyes which remained open after death.
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Read about Stage 1: Pallor Mortis and Stage 3: Rigor Mortis
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Stage 3: Rigor Mortis

Corpse in morgue displays signs of Rigor Mortis

The third stage of decomposition known as “Rigor Mortis” translates to “stiffness” [rigor] “of death” [mortis]. The stiffness in a body during the phase of Rigor Mortis is caused by a build up of lactic acid which causes chemical changes within muscles. In life, lactic acid, also known as “milk acid” plays various roles in a body’s biochemical process. The myosin and actin (proteins involved in muscle movement) in the body then begin to harden, causing all muscles in the body to harden for a period of time, as well. At the time of death, “primary flaccidity” occurs and Rigor Mortis begins within 2-6 hours of death, starting with the eyelids, neck and jaw before spreading throughout the rest of the body over the following 4-6 hours. Sometimes all the hardening and contracting of muscles can cause an involuntary postmortem ejaculation in a male corpse. The exact onset and rate of completion of this stage is determined by many factors including age, gender, body type and muscle build; For instance, Rigor Mortis may not be perceivable in infants and children who lack muscle mass. Rigor Mortis may develop more quickly if cause of death is an infection, terminal seizure, electrocution or if the deceased has recently engaged in strenuous exercise or had a higher than average body temperature caused by fever, drugs or intoxication. Generally, 36-48 hours after death “secondary flaccidity” occurs when bacteria in the body begins eating away at the deceased from the inside out, causing the body to end Rigor Mortis and loosen again as muscle tissue begins to deteriorate. Sometimes, it can take 72 hours for the body to reach secondary flaccidity. In a warm environment, Rigor Mortis tends to dissipate sooner than average, whereas in a cold climate, the effects may persist longer.
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Find out what happens prior to Rigor Mortis, Stage 1: Pallor Mortis and Stage 2: Algor Mortis and after Stage 4: Livor Mortis

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Stage 5: Putrefaction

Early Putrefaction: Signs of bloating and marbling [see Stage 4: Livor Mortis] in corpse. Photo and observations courtesy of Strange Remains (author’s image credit: The Wellcome Collection)

The fifth stage of decomposition, Putrefaction, is brought on by the early effects of true decomposition. It is the time that proteins begin to be broken down by bacteria into smaller and smaller elements until tissues are no longer cohesive and most organs turn to liquid. Putrefaction is when “rotting flesh” becomes evident both in appearance and smell. Before this stage, most of the excess gas build up is contained within internal organs. While they may release through the same avenues they do in life (windpipe, anus, vagina), it is during putrefaction that the body has softened to the point that these gasses begin seeping through the blood vessels and throughout the body, causing severe bloating of the torso and limbs. Generally, there is a purge of fluids which appear similar to blood, through the nose and mouth. Skin will often begin to rupture, creating a lesion for the bacterial gasses to escape through. Putrefaction causes the tongue to swell and protrude from the mouth, at this point identification of the body becomes difficult, if not impossible. When a body is in advanced stages of putrefaction, it is impossible to determine the cause of death unless there are signs of poisoning, gunshot wounds, or fractures.

Advanced Putrefaction: Open abdominal cavity, purge of fluids exiting mouth and skin slippage [see Stage 6: Decomposition] visible on corpse. Eyes which were previously shut appear to be bulging from the sockets. Photo and observations courtesy of Stange Remains (author’s image credit: The Wellcome Collection)

 During putrefaction there is also quite a bit of postmortem peeing, pooping and farting. Sometimes, uterine elapse or even a phenomenon known as “Coffin Birth” can occur in which a deceased, pregnant woman gives birth with the aid of bacterial gases escaping the vaginal canal. Larval infestations are common during this phase of decomposition if the body is left to the elements. Putrefaction can take place as long as the temperature is above 50 degrees Farenheit (10 degrees Celsius) and below 118 degrees F (48 C). It is optimum at 70-100 degrees F (21-38 degrees C). When between 88-100 degrees F (31-48 degrees C) the rate at which putrefaction takes place will usually double. As with the previous stages of decomposition, there are many factors that influence putrefaction. Moisture is necessary to the process, and rapid drying can bring putrefaction nearly to a halt. The body being exposed to air helps the process along, mostly because it allows microorganism and insects, which are an integral part of the process, to easily access the cadaver. Clothing will initially speed up the process because it aids in keeping the body at optimum temperature to produce bacteria for a longer period of time. Tight clothing, however, will restrict the blood and tissue, preventing the escape of gas and also the entry of insects and microorganisms. Children tend to putrify more rapidly, while the elderly putrify slowly. Obese corpses putrify much faster than lean bodies due to the excess tissue which holds in more moisture and heat, creating and sustaining optimal conditions for bacteria to multiply for longer periods of time. Eyes slide outwards from the sockets, or “pop out”, causing the facial features to become distorted. If the deceased is buried in a casket shortly after death, buried in sandy soil,and/ or buried deeper than 6 1/2 feet (2 meters), where the body is protected from moisture and insects, less putrefaction will take place. It will be rapid in damp, marshy environments, or if the body is buried in a shallow grave, without a coffin and/or clothing to protect the corpse from the elements. This stage of decomposition will begin quickly if the body is exposed to water contaminated by raw sewage with extremely high levels of bacteria. As in Livor Mortis, a cadaver in water will begin to show signs of putrefaction on the face, then neck, upper extremities and chest, abdomen, and finally the lower extremities. Signs of decomposition consistently appear in this order when a body is floating in water because the corpse is constantly in motion. Once the body has been removed however, putrefaction will speed up, being helped along by all the moisture the deceased body has absorbed.

Read The Beauty of Human Decomposition in Japanese Watercolor by Strange Remains to learn more about the photos used in this article and visit The Wellcome Collection

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 Find out what happens before Putrefaction Stage 1: Pallor Mortis, Stage 2: Algor Mortis, Stage 3: Rigor Mortis, Stage 4: Livor Mortis and after Biotic Decomposition

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Stage 6: Decomposition

Decomposing corpse from Sally Mann’s series, ‘Body Farm’

In the 6th stage of decomposition, true decomposition or “biotic decomposition”, takes place. Biotic decomposition is breakdown of the body’s components into smaller and smaller components until the organic body is gone. This process is caused by living organisms, usually microorganisms. When the body is broken down by other, faster means such as cremation, alkaline hydrolysis/resomation, promessa, or other physical/chemical process, it is refered to as “abiotic decomposition”. The speed and success of biotic decomposition, as with most stages of the decomposition process, relies on many factors. Generally speaking, conditions which aid in the previous stage, Putrefaction also aid in biotic decomposition. The amount of bacteria in the body at time of death and ability to produce more bacteria postmortem plays a large role. For instance, if you eat a lot of meat, your corpse will contain and produce higher levels of bacteria than a vegan. The bodies of deceased newborns who have never been fed decompose very slowly because in most cases, they are “sterile”, or mostly void of bacteria in their system. However, if a newborn passes away but has been fed, their body tends to decompose much faster than average. If a corpse has been mutilated or obtained large, open wounds decomposition will take place more quickly because it allows easy entry for insects and microorganisms whereas clothing may slow the process. If a body is buried after beginning to decompose somewhat, it will complete more quickly than if the body was buried soon after death. Embalming will delay the process, as is its function, but if the body is left to the elements in open air with scavengers nearby to help the body breakdown, decomposition will complete very rapidly.

Decomposing corpse from Sally Mann’s series, ‘Body Farm’

Decomposition begins and ends slower in water than in open air. Warm, fresh and/or stagnant water aid slightly in the process, while cold water, salt water and/or running water slow decomposition. Deep water may cause a delay in the onset of biotic decomposition. Water contaminated by sewage will speed up the process. When in water, the skin on the hands and feet of the cadaver may become swollen and bleached. Within 2-4 days, “sleeving” becomes possible. Sleeving, also called “skin slippage”, refers to the loosening of decaying skin to the point that it will slough off in one piece, or made able to pull off as though it were a sleeve. After several weeks in the water, this skin can easily by stripped off, or sleeved, by the current or contact with objects such as rocks. Once skin slippage begins and the upper layer of epidermis has been sleeved off, it is incredibly difficult, if not impossible to obtain fingerprints in order to identify the deceased. Mold can also begin to form on a deceased body in water or a moist area, but usually only on exposed patches of skin. Generally, bodies left in water do not remain intact long due to crustaceans, fish, and water rats feeding on the corpse. “Casper’s Law”, also known as “Casper’s Ratio” suggests that if all other factors (clothing, contents of digestive system, lesions/abrasions, weather conditions, temperature, etc) is equal, bodies with free access to open air decompose twice as fast as in water, and eight times as fast as when buried.

Decomposing corpse from Sally Mann’s series, ‘Body Farm’

Find out what happens before Biotic Decomposition in Stage 1: Pallor Mortis, Stage 2: Algor Mortis, Stage 3: Rigor Mortis, Stage 4: Livor Mortis and Stage 5: Putrefaction
and in the final stage of decomposition, Stage 7: Skeletonization

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See more of Sally Mann’s series Body Farm

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Stage 7: Skeletonization

Partially skeletonized corpse. Decomposing skin remains in some areas.

The 7th and final stage of decomposition, skeletonization, begins when soft tissue has dried and decayed to the point that parts of the skeleton are visible. Skeletonization is complete once all tissue has decomposed and all that is left of the corpse is bone. Remains may become reduced to bone in as little as three weeks but can take up to several years. Factors including temperature and environment determine the timeline of skeletonization. In a tropical climate the body may be reduced to bone in just a few weeks, in tundra, the process will take several years. Skeletonization may never occur if the corpse is in an environment with persistent subzero temperatures as seen in bodies left behind on Mt. Everest.

Body of George Herbert Leigh Mallory on Mt. Everest. Died on British expedition in 1924. His corpse (discovered May 1,1999) remains in pristine condition to this day due to extreme cold. Photo courtesy Atlas Obscura.

Instead of decomposing, remains of climbers who perished have been preserved due to the extreme cold and now act as trail markers up the treacherous mountainside. The bodies of those who die on Mt. Everest usually remain because an attempt to reach and recover the corpse would most likely prove to be unsuccessful, possibly resulting in another fatality. When the corpse is left in a peat bog or salt desert, skeletonization may be delayed, or natural embalming or spontaneous mummification can occur. The body may saponify, or become “adipocere” if left in certain environments, including a peat bog. This is a rare form of spontaneous mummification seen in the Mutter Museum’s “Soap Lady” who saponified in an alkaline, warm environment which was lacking air. While it is not common, it is possible for a corpse to undergo skeletonization in one area of the body, while experiencing some form of natural preservation in another.

The Soap Lady saponified, causing the corpse to become a soapy, wax-like substance called adipocere. Photo courtesy of the Mutter Museum.

In an area void of scavenging animals, bodies buried in acidic soil will take approximately 20 years to complete skeletonization and for bone to decompose to the point that practically no evidence of the body is left. In soil with a neutral PH level, a corpse can last as long as 100 years before bone has decayed almost completely. There is also a possibility bone may not deteriorate and the skeleton could instead become a fossil or crude oil.

Fully skeletonized corpse. Bones have begun to deteriorate. Photo courtesy Bones Don’t Lie.

 

Read about the Stages of Decomposition leading up to Skeletonization Stage 1: Pallor Mortis, Stage 2: Algor Mortis, Stage 3: Rigor Mortis, Stage 4: Livor Mortis, Stage 5: Putrefaction, and Stage 6: Biotic Decomposition 

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If you enjoyed this article, you may also like Pray the Decay Away: Incorruptible Corpses and Other Forms of Natural Postmortem Preservation,  Everybody Poops: The Post-Mortem Edition, Demystifying the Process of Dying and Burying the Dead is Killing the Planet.