Stage 4: Livor Mortis

The fourth stage of decomposition, Livor Mortis translates to “blueish color” [livor] “of death” [mortis] although it has many names including “hypostasis”, “suggillation”, “cadaveric lividity”, “darkening of death” and “postmortem staining”. Livor Mortis begins when circulation stops, blood vessels become more permeable due to decomposition, and blood settles throughout the corpse. Red blood cells, which are very dense, travel and pool in the lowest areas possible, staining the tissue. This means in a hanging death, discoloration would be seen in the feet, fingertips and ear lobes. Males who die from hanging may also acquire what’s known as a “Death Erection” (or “Angel Lust”) due to the pooling of blood in their penis.

Death Erection

In someone who died in the supine position (lying face up), lividity would appear on the corpse’s back. Drowning victims, or bodies found in water show signs of Livor Mortis in the face, upper parts of the chest, hands, lower arms, feet and calves because they are in constant motion. Livor Mortis begins within 20 minutes to 2 hours of death and initially causes the skin to appear blue and blotchy. Blood congeals in the capillaries within 4-5 hours and in 5-6 hours, blotches on the skin become more fluid. At this time, if pressure is applied to the discolored area(s), skin will turn white. Maximum lividity can be observed between 6-12 hours, and after 10-12 hours, skin will retain discoloration even when pressed. The name is slightly misleading as it tends to appear more of a blueish-purple or purple-ish red in most cases. Certain poisons alter the color of postmortem staining, which can aid in determining cause of death. In a carbon monoxide poisoning death, discoloration would be a cherry pink. Hydrocyanic acid poisoning appears bright red, and nitrates, potassium chlorate, potassium bicarbonate, nitrobenzene and aniline (which causes methaemoglobinaemia) all manifest as a red-brown or brown discoloration. Phosphorus poisoning causes dark brown postmortem staining. Discoloration is especially evident on the ear lobes and underneath fingernails and in fair-skinned people. Intensity of the color depends on the amount of hemoglobin in the blood of the deceased and hypostastis can be internal as well as external, often manifesting on the heart, lungs, kidney, spleen and other organs. During later stages of Livor Mortis, the body may also begin to show “marbling”, which is caused by the breakdown of hemoglobin.

Marbling

Tardieu Spots

Corpses in the later stages of Livor Mortis may also develop “Tardieu spots”, which look like purple liver spots. These dark spots are created by ruptured capillaries. In addition, “vibices” are often visible on bodies during the stage of Livor Mortis. Vibices look like strips or bands and are caused by pressure, usually left by tight-fitting clothing such as socks, belts and bras. In hanging deaths, a noose or other method of hanging may be visible in the form of a vibice. When pressure is applied to the corpse, it prevents blood from pooling in those areas.

Vibices seen on corpse. Lividity suggests corpse was in supine position at time of death.

Petechiae, larger haemorrhages or palpable blood blisters may form on patches of discolored skin. The subtle differences between postmortem staining/haemorrhages and bruising obtained in a fatal accident or murder is evident to investigators when determining cause of death. The discoloration caused by pooling of blood in the vessels appears slightly different from bruises which are formed when blood escapes the vessel. Livor Mortis is incredibly useful in determining whether a body has been moved after death. For example, if a body is livor on the back, indicating they died in the supine position but are discovered in prone position (face down), it is evident someone move the body. Signs of the fourth stage of decomposition are also a tale-tell sign that resuscitation is futile.
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Find out what happens before Livor Mortis in Stage 1: Pallor Mortis, Stage 2: Algor Mortis, and Stage 3: Rigor Mortis and after Stage 5: Putrefaction

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Stage 5: Putrefaction

Early Putrefaction: Signs of bloating and marbling [see Stage 4: Livor Mortis] in corpse. Photo and observations courtesy of Strange Remains (author’s image credit: The Wellcome Collection)

The fifth stage of decomposition, Putrefaction, is brought on by the early effects of true decomposition. It is the time that proteins begin to be broken down by bacteria into smaller and smaller elements until tissues are no longer cohesive and most organs turn to liquid. Putrefaction is when “rotting flesh” becomes evident both in appearance and smell. Before this stage, most of the excess gas build up is contained within internal organs. While they may release through the same avenues they do in life (windpipe, anus, vagina), it is during putrefaction that the body has softened to the point that these gasses begin seeping through the blood vessels and throughout the body, causing severe bloating of the torso and limbs. Generally, there is a purge of fluids which appear similar to blood, through the nose and mouth. Skin will often begin to rupture, creating a lesion for the bacterial gasses to escape through. Putrefaction causes the tongue to swell and protrude from the mouth, at this point identification of the body becomes difficult, if not impossible. When a body is in advanced stages of putrefaction, it is impossible to determine the cause of death unless there are signs of poisoning, gunshot wounds, or fractures.

Advanced Putrefaction: Open abdominal cavity, purge of fluids exiting mouth and skin slippage [see Stage 6: Decomposition] visible on corpse. Eyes which were previously shut appear to be bulging from the sockets. Photo and observations courtesy of Stange Remains (author’s image credit: The Wellcome Collection)

 During putrefaction there is also quite a bit of postmortem peeing, pooping and farting. Sometimes, uterine elapse or even a phenomenon known as “Coffin Birth” can occur in which a deceased, pregnant woman gives birth with the aid of bacterial gases escaping the vaginal canal. Larval infestations are common during this phase of decomposition if the body is left to the elements. Putrefaction can take place as long as the temperature is above 50 degrees Farenheit (10 degrees Celsius) and below 118 degrees F (48 C). It is optimum at 70-100 degrees F (21-38 degrees C). When between 88-100 degrees F (31-48 degrees C) the rate at which putrefaction takes place will usually double. As with the previous stages of decomposition, there are many factors that influence putrefaction. Moisture is necessary to the process, and rapid drying can bring putrefaction nearly to a halt. The body being exposed to air helps the process along, mostly because it allows microorganism and insects, which are an integral part of the process, to easily access the cadaver. Clothing will initially speed up the process because it aids in keeping the body at optimum temperature to produce bacteria for a longer period of time. Tight clothing, however, will restrict the blood and tissue, preventing the escape of gas and also the entry of insects and microorganisms. Children tend to putrify more rapidly, while the elderly putrify slowly. Obese corpses putrify much faster than lean bodies due to the excess tissue which holds in more moisture and heat, creating and sustaining optimal conditions for bacteria to multiply for longer periods of time. Eyes slide outwards from the sockets, or “pop out”, causing the facial features to become distorted. If the deceased is buried in a casket shortly after death, buried in sandy soil,and/ or buried deeper than 6 1/2 feet (2 meters), where the body is protected from moisture and insects, less putrefaction will take place. It will be rapid in damp, marshy environments, or if the body is buried in a shallow grave, without a coffin and/or clothing to protect the corpse from the elements. This stage of decomposition will begin quickly if the body is exposed to water contaminated by raw sewage with extremely high levels of bacteria. As in Livor Mortis, a cadaver in water will begin to show signs of putrefaction on the face, then neck, upper extremities and chest, abdomen, and finally the lower extremities. Signs of decomposition consistently appear in this order when a body is floating in water because the corpse is constantly in motion. Once the body has been removed however, putrefaction will speed up, being helped along by all the moisture the deceased body has absorbed.

Read The Beauty of Human Decomposition in Japanese Watercolor by Strange Remains to learn more about the photos used in this article and visit The Wellcome Collection

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 Find out what happens before Putrefaction Stage 1: Pallor Mortis, Stage 2: Algor Mortis, Stage 3: Rigor Mortis, Stage 4: Livor Mortis and after Biotic Decomposition

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Stage 7: Skeletonization

Partially skeletonized corpse. Decomposing skin remains in some areas.

The 7th and final stage of decomposition, skeletonization, begins when soft tissue has dried and decayed to the point that parts of the skeleton are visible. Skeletonization is complete once all tissue has decomposed and all that is left of the corpse is bone. Remains may become reduced to bone in as little as three weeks but can take up to several years. Factors including temperature and environment determine the timeline of skeletonization. In a tropical climate the body may be reduced to bone in just a few weeks, in tundra, the process will take several years. Skeletonization may never occur if the corpse is in an environment with persistent subzero temperatures as seen in bodies left behind on Mt. Everest.

Body of George Herbert Leigh Mallory on Mt. Everest. Died on British expedition in 1924. His corpse (discovered May 1,1999) remains in pristine condition to this day due to extreme cold. Photo courtesy Atlas Obscura.

Instead of decomposing, remains of climbers who perished have been preserved due to the extreme cold and now act as trail markers up the treacherous mountainside. The bodies of those who die on Mt. Everest usually remain because an attempt to reach and recover the corpse would most likely prove to be unsuccessful, possibly resulting in another fatality. When the corpse is left in a peat bog or salt desert, skeletonization may be delayed, or natural embalming or spontaneous mummification can occur. The body may saponify, or become “adipocere” if left in certain environments, including a peat bog. This is a rare form of spontaneous mummification seen in the Mutter Museum’s “Soap Lady” who saponified in an alkaline, warm environment which was lacking air. While it is not common, it is possible for a corpse to undergo skeletonization in one area of the body, while experiencing some form of natural preservation in another.

The Soap Lady saponified, causing the corpse to become a soapy, wax-like substance called adipocere. Photo courtesy of the Mutter Museum.

In an area void of scavenging animals, bodies buried in acidic soil will take approximately 20 years to complete skeletonization and for bone to decompose to the point that practically no evidence of the body is left. In soil with a neutral PH level, a corpse can last as long as 100 years before bone has decayed almost completely. There is also a possibility bone may not deteriorate and the skeleton could instead become a fossil or crude oil.

Fully skeletonized corpse. Bones have begun to deteriorate. Photo courtesy Bones Don’t Lie.

 

Read about the Stages of Decomposition leading up to Skeletonization Stage 1: Pallor Mortis, Stage 2: Algor Mortis, Stage 3: Rigor Mortis, Stage 4: Livor Mortis, Stage 5: Putrefaction, and Stage 6: Biotic Decomposition 

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If you enjoyed this article, you may also like Pray the Decay Away: Incorruptible Corpses and Other Forms of Natural Postmortem Preservation,  Everybody Poops: The Post-Mortem Edition, Demystifying the Process of Dying and Burying the Dead is Killing the Planet.

How to Decay the Gool Ol’ Fashioned Way

If you’ve been keeping up with The Post-Mortem Post’s Decomposition Week Special, you already know all there is to know on the subject of Pallor Mortis, Algor Mortis, Rigor Mortis, Livor Mortis, Putrefaction, Biotic Decomposition and Skeletonization. We have good news for those of you who haven’t gotten your decomposition fix just yet because now we will move on to The Other Stages of Decomposition: Fresh, Bloat, Active Decay, Advanced Decay and Dry Remains.

1. Fresh
“Fresh” is used to describe the time between death and the first signs of bloat. This stage includes Pallor Mortis, Algor Mortis, Rigor Mortis and Livor Mortis. Although no obvious changes can be observed on a “fresh” corpse in appearance or smell, bacteria has already begun digesting the body internally. Within a few minutes of death or the exposure of a corpse which was in a protective environment, Calliphoridae, commonly known as “blow flies”, sarcopha gidae (flesh flies), muscidae (species of fly) and ants begin to arrive. In 1-3 hours these insects will begin laying eggs inside the natural orifices of the corpse (usually the head and anus) and in any wounds present.

2. Bloat
Bloat begins with the inflation of the abdomen due to a build up of bacterial gasses. Purge fluids may also begin to exit the nose and mouth. At this time, change in the corpse’s flesh tone will become evident as well as marbling. The corpse will begin to let off a distinct odor during bloat as it begins to Putrefy. Blow flies, flesh flies and muscids continue to arrive and lay their larvae in the corpse’s orifices and wounds. During bloat, Piophilidae (cheese flies), Fanniidae flies, Staphylinidae (rove beetles), Silphidae (carrion beetles), Coleoptera and Cleridae beetles arrive.

3. Active Decay
Active decay is apparent when the corpse begins to “deflate” with help from Dipteran fly larvae that puncture the skin, releasing bacterial gasses. The corpse will begin to take on a wet appearance due to the liquefaction of tissue as strong odors persist. During active decay, flesh on the head and anus will be removed by insects which will then begin to eat away at the chest and abdominal cavities. The Calliphoridae fly larvae is generally the most abundant species during this process and Sepsidue (lesser dung fly) arrive.

4. Advanced Decay
At the onset of Advanced Decay, also known as “Post-Decay“, most flesh has been removed from the corpse, though some may remain in the abdominal cavity. Most odor begins to dissipate, as well and larvae either leave, or grow into adults. No new larvae will be produced in a corpse in Advanced Decay, and far more adult insects are present. Dermestidae (skin beetles) will begin to arrive.

5. Dry Decay
Dry Decay breaks down into Separate Remains and Dry Remains; However, the stages are so similar they are next to impossible to differentiate. Due to this, both are lumped together as Dry Decay. At this time, little to no odor exists and most insects which were previously feeding on the corpse have left. During Dry Decay centipedes, millipedes, isopedes, snails and cockroaches may arrive.

Decay can be delayed by many factors discussed during Decomposition Week [links available at end of article]. Insects involved in the decomposition process may also be subject to factors which aid or hinder their consumption of a corpse. For instance, insects would be delayed when consuming the body of a victim of arsenic poisoning. Unsurprisingly, traces of cocaine left in a corpse cause insects to work very rapidly. Of course, a body may only decompose in this way when on a Body Farm or similar environment where it is exposed to open air and somewhat protected from large scavenging animals.

DECOMPOSITION WEEK EXTENDED (slightly): Come back WEDNESDAY April 15th to learn about Adipocere/Saponify and other forms of natural preservation. In an effort to include more information without creating an overload of information we have chosen to split today’s scheduled article into two separate pieces. Apologies to anyone who was looking forward to learning about spontaneous mummification today!

Read about the Seven Stages of Decomposition: Pallor Mortis, Algor Mortis, Rigor Mortis, Livor Mortis, Putrefaction, Biotic Decomposition and Skeletonization

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If you enjoyed this article, you may also like Everybody Poops: The Post-Mortem Edition, Demystifying the Process of Dying and Burying the Dead is Killing the Planet